Magic Leap Patent | Light Field Display Metrology
Patent: Light Field Display Metrology
Publication Number: 20170122725
Publication Date: 20170504
Applicants: Magic Leap
Abstract
Examples of a light field metrology system for use with a display are disclosed. The light field metrology may capture images of a projected light field, and determine focus depths (or lateral focus positions) for various regions of the light field using the captured images. The determined focus depths (or lateral positions) may then be compared with intended focus depths (or lateral positions), to quantify the imperfections of the display. Based on the measured imperfections, an appropriate error correction may be performed on the light field to correct for the measured imperfections. The display can be an optical display element in a head mounted display, for example, an optical display element capable of generating multiple depth planes or a light field display.
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Application No. 62/250,925, filed Nov. 4, 2015, titled LIGHT FIELD DISPLAY METROLOGY, U.S. Application No. 62/278,779, filed Jan. 14, 2016, titled LIGHT FIELD ERROR CORRECTION, U.S. Application No. 62/250,934, filed Nov. 4, 2015, titled AUTOMATED CALIBRATION IMAGE PROJECTION AND CAPTURE FOR DISPLAY CALIBRATION, U.S. Application No. 62/278,824, filed Jan. 14, 2016, titled DYNAMIC CALIBRATION OF A DISPLAY BASED ON EYE-TRACKING, and U.S. Application No. 62/278,794, filed Jan. 14, 2016, titled CHROMATIC BALANCING A DISPLAY HAVING VARYING CHROMATICITY ACROSS A FIELD OF VIEW, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.
FIELD
[0002] The present disclosure relates to virtual reality and augmented reality imaging and visualization systems and more particularly to metrology systems for measuring and calibrating optical properties of imaging and visualization systems. The present disclosure also relates to dynamic calibration of virtual reality and augmented reality imaging and visualization systems based on eye-tracking.
BACKGROUND
[0003] Modern computing and display technologies have facilitated the development of systems for so called “virtual reality” or “augmented reality” experiences, wherein digitally reproduced images or portions thereof are presented to a user in a manner wherein they seem to be, or may be perceived as, real. A virtual reality, or “VR”, scenario typically involves presentation of digital or virtual image information without transparency to other actual real-world visual input; an augmented reality, or “AR”, scenario typically involves presentation of digital or virtual image information as an augmentation to visualization of the actual world around the user; or a mixed reality “MR,” relating to merging real and virtual worlds to produce new environment where physical and virtual objects co-exist and interact in real time. As it turns out, the human visual perception system is very complex, and producing a VR, AR, or MR technology that facilitates a comfortable, natural-feeling, rich presentation of virtual image elements amongst other virtual or real-world imagery elements is challenging. Systems and methods disclosed herein address various challenges related to VR, AR, and MR technology.
SUMMARY
[0004] An embodiment of an imaging system comprises a projection device for projecting an image toward an eye of a viewer, the image comprising a light field representing light from a virtual objects, wherein the virtual object is configured to be projected as if located at one or more intended focus depths, and a light field metrology device for measuring imperfections in the light field. The light field metrology device may be configured to capture one or more images corresponding to a portion of the light field, analyze the one or more captured images to identify one or more perceived focuses depths corresponding to depths at which the portion of the light field is in focus, create a depth map based at least in part upon the identified focus depths, and compare the created depth map with the one or more intended focus depths. The system can generate a calibration for spatial and/or chromatic imperfections that can be used to dynamically calibrate a wearable display system.
[0005] Details of one or more implementations of the subject matter described in this specification are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims. Neither this summary nor the following detailed description purports to define or limit the scope of the inventive subject matter.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0006] FIG. 1 depicts an illustration of an augmented reality scenario with certain virtual reality objects, and certain actual reality objects viewed by a person.
[0007] FIG. 2 schematically illustrates an example of a wearable display system.
[0008] FIG. 3 schematically illustrates aspects of an approach for simulating three-dimensional imagery using multiple depth planes.
[0009] FIG. 4 schematically illustrates an example of a waveguide stack for outputting image information to a user.
[0010] FIG. 5 shows example exit beams that may be outputted by a waveguide.
[0011] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing an optical system including a waveguide apparatus, an optical coupler subsystem to optically couple light to or from the waveguide apparatus, and a control subsystem, used in the generation of a multi-focal volumetric display, image, or light field.
[0012] FIG. 7 illustrates example distortions that can occur when projecting a calibration pattern.
[0013] FIG. 8 illustrates another example vector field that may be generated to visualize distortion between displayed imaged locations and expected image locations.
[0014] FIG. 9A illustrates an example XY Translation spatial error.
[0015] FIG. 9B illustrates an example aggregate rotation spatial error.
[0016] FIGS. 9C and 9D illustrate examples of aggregate scaling spatial error.
[0017] FIG. 9E illustrates an example of remaining spatial errors after corrections of XY translation, rotation, and scaling have been performed.
[0018] FIG. 10A illustrates an example of a plurality of depth planes, intended to be viewed at different depths.
[0019] FIGS. 10B-10E illustrate example out-of-plane spatial errors that may occur when viewing the projected depth planes.
[0020] FIG. 11 illustrates a captured image of a projected test image.
[0021] FIG. 12A illustrates an intensity histogram that may be generated from a captured image of a projected test image.
[0022] FIG. 12B illustrates an intensity profile generated from a captured image of a projected test image.
[0023] FIG. 13 illustrates example intensity histograms illustrating differences between mode, median, and mean.
[0024] FIG. 14A illustrates a Red-Green-Blue (RGB) intensity map generated from a captured image of a projected test image.
[0025] FIG. 14B illustrates a plot mapping an example of maximum color off-balance error.
[0026] FIG. 15 illustrates an RGB intensity map for an example display with red, green, and blue layers after chromatic correction.
[0027] FIG. 16 is a flowchart of an example of a process for performing image correction on a display system.
[0028] FIGS. 17A and 17B illustrate examples of objects viewed with a normal light field and an imperfect light field.
[0029] FIG. 18 schematically illustrates an example of a light field metrology system for measuring focus depths of a projected light field, in accordance with some embodiments.
[0030] FIG. 19A is a diagram of an example of an image that may be captured by a camera focused on a particular focus depth.
[0031] FIGS. 19B and 19C illustrate examples of a depth graph and a depth map.
[0032] FIG. 20 is a flowchart of an example of a process for measuring a quality of a virtual target pattern generated by a light field display.
[0033] FIG. 21 is a flowchart that illustrates an example of a method for calibrating a display.
[0034] FIG. 22 schematically illustrates an example of a system that uses a calibration pattern to calibrate a display.
[0035] FIG. 23A illustrates an example checkerboard calibration pattern.
[0036] FIG. 23B illustrates an example single-pixel calibration pattern.
[0037] FIG. 24 is a flowchart of an example process for calibrating a projected light field.
[0038] FIG. 25A is a top view that schematically illustrates an example of a display including a waveguide, an incoupling optical element, a light redistributing element, and an outcoupling optical element.
[0039] FIG. 25B is a cross-sectional view of the display depicted in FIG. 7A along the axis A-A’.
[0040] FIG. 26 schematically illustrates an example of a dynamic calibration system for a display for which a calibration can be applied to correct for spatial and/or chromatic errors at a grid of reference positions (indicated by dots).
[0041] FIG. 27 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method for dynamically calibrating a display based on eye-tracking.
[0042] FIG. 28 is a process flow diagram schematically illustrating an example of the interaction of a factory calibration system and a dynamic calibration system associated with a particular display.
[0043] Throughout the drawings, reference numbers may be re-used to indicate correspondence between referenced elements. The drawings are provided to illustrate example embodiments described herein and are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
Overview
[0044] In order for a three-dimensional (3D) display to produce a true sensation of depth, and more specifically, a simulated sensation of surface depth, it is desirable for each point in the display’s visual field to generate the accommodative response corresponding to its virtual depth. If the accommodative response to a display point does not correspond to the virtual depth of that point, as determined by the binocular depth cues of convergence and stereopsis, the human eye may experience an accommodation conflict, resulting in unstable imaging, harmful eye strain, headaches, and, in the absence of accommodation information, almost a complete lack of surface depth.
[0045] VR and AR experiences can be provided by display systems having displays in which images corresponding to a plurality of depth planes are provided to a viewer. The images may be different for each depth plane (e.g., provide slightly different presentations of a scene or object) and may be separately focused by the viewer’s eyes, thereby helping to provide the user with depth cues based on the accommodation of the eye required to bring into focus different image features for the scene located on different depth plane and/or based on observing different image features on different depth planes being out of focus. As discussed elsewhere herein, such depth cues provide credible perceptions of depth.
3D Display
[0046] FIG. 1 depicts an illustration of an augmented reality scenario with certain virtual reality objects, and certain actual reality objects viewed by a person. FIG. 1 depicts an augmented reality scene 100, wherein a user of an AR technology sees a real-world park-like setting 110 featuring people, trees, buildings in the background, and a concrete platform 120. In addition to these items, the user of the AR technology also perceives that he “sees” a robot statue 130 standing upon the real-world platform 120, and a cartoon-like avatar character 140 flying by which seems to be a personification of a bumble bee, even though these elements do not exist in the real world.
[0047] In order for a three-dimensional (3-D) display to produce a true sensation of depth, and more specifically, a simulated sensation of surface depth, it is desirable for each point in the display’s visual field to generate the accommodative response corresponding to its virtual depth. If the accommodative response to a display point does not correspond to the virtual depth of that point, as determined by the binocular depth cues of convergence and stereopsis, the human eye may experience an accommodation conflict, resulting in unstable imaging, harmful eye strain, headaches, and, in the absence of accommodation information, almost a complete lack of surface depth.
[0048] VR, AR, and MR experiences can be provided by display systems having displays in which images corresponding to a plurality of depth planes are provided to a viewer. The images may be different for each depth plane (e.g., provide slightly different presentations of a scene or object) and may be separately focused by the viewer’s eyes, thereby helping to provide the user with depth cues based on the accommodation of the eye required to bring into focus different image features for the scene located on different depth plane and/or based on observing different image features on different depth planes being out of focus. As discussed elsewhere herein, such depth cues provide credible perceptions of depth.
[0049] FIG. 2 illustrates an example of wearable display system 200 that can be used to present a VR, AR, or MR experience to a display system wearer or viewer 204. The display system 200 includes a display 208, and various mechanical and electronic modules and systems to support the functioning of display 208. The display 208 may be coupled to a frame 212, which is wearable by a display system user, wearer, or viewer 204 and which is configured to position the display 208 in front of the eyes of the wearer 204. The display 208 may be a light field display. In some embodiments, a speaker 216 is coupled to the frame 212 and positioned adjacent the ear canal of the user (in some embodiments, another speaker, not shown, is positioned adjacent the other ear canal of the user to provide for stereo/shapeable sound control). The display 208 is operatively coupled 220, such as by a wired lead or wireless connectivity, to a local data processing module 224 which may be mounted in a variety of configurations, such as fixedly attached to the frame 212, fixedly attached to a helmet or hat worn by the user, embedded in headphones, or otherwise removably attached to the user 204 (e.g., in a backpack-style configuration, in a belt-coupling style configuration).
[0050] The local processing and data module 224 may comprise a hardware processor, as well as non-transitory digital memory, such as non-volatile memory (e.g., flash memory), both of which may be utilized to assist in the processing, caching, and storage of data. The data may include data (a) captured from sensors (which may be, e.g., operatively coupled to the frame 212 or otherwise attached to the user 204), such as image capture devices (such as cameras), microphones, inertial measurement units, accelerometers, compasses, GPS units, radio devices, and/or gyros; and/or (b) acquired and/or processed using remote processing module 228 and/or remote data repository 232, possibly for passage to the display 208 after such processing or retrieval. The local processing and data module 224 may be operatively coupled to the remote processing module 228 and remote data repository 232 by communication links 236 and/or 240, such as via wired or wireless communication links, such that these remote modules 228, 232 are available as resources to the local processing and data module 224. In addition, remote processing module 228 and remote data repository 232 may be operatively coupled to each other.
[0051] In some embodiments, the remote processing module 228 may comprise one or more processors configured to analyze and process data and/or image information such as video information captured by an image capture device. The video data may be stored locally in the local processing and data module 224 and/or in the remote data repository 232. In some embodiments, the remote data repository 232 may comprise a digital data storage facility, which may be available through the internet or other networking configuration in a “cloud” resource configuration. In some embodiments, all data is stored and all computations are performed in the local processing and data module 224, allowing fully autonomous use from a remote module.
[0052] The human visual system is complicated and providing a realistic perception of depth is challenging. Without being limited by theory, it is believed that viewers of an object may perceive the object as being three-dimensional due to a combination of vergence and accommodation. Vergence movements (i.e., rolling movements of the pupils toward or away from each other to converge the lines of sight of the eyes to fixate upon an object) of the two eyes relative to each other are closely associated with focusing (or “accommodation”) of the lenses of the eyes. Under normal conditions, changing the focus of the lenses of the eyes, or accommodating the eyes, to change focus from one object to another object at a different distance will automatically cause a matching change in vergence to the same distance, under a relationship known as the “accommodation-vergence reflex.” Likewise, a change in vergence will trigger a matching change in accommodation, under normal conditions. Display systems that provide a better match between accommodation and vergence may form more realistic or comfortable simulations of three-dimensional imagery.
[0053] FIG. 3 illustrates aspects of an approach for simulating three-dimensional imagery using multiple depth planes. With reference to FIG. 3, objects at various distances from eyes 302 and 304 on the z-axis are accommodated by the eyes 302 and 304 so that those objects are in focus. The eyes 302 and 304 assume particular accommodated states to bring into focus objects at different distances along the z-axis. Consequently, a particular accommodated state may be said to be associated with a particular one of depth planes 306, with an associated focal distance, such that objects or parts of objects in a particular depth plane are in focus when the eye is in the accommodated state for that depth plane. In some embodiments, three-dimensional imagery may be simulated by providing different presentations of an image for each of the eyes 302 and 304, and also by providing different presentations of the image corresponding to each of the depth planes. While shown as being separate for clarity of illustration, it will be appreciated that the fields of view of the eyes 302 and 304 may overlap, for example, as distance along the z-axis increases. In addition, while shown as flat for ease of illustration, it will be appreciated that the contours of a depth plane may be curved in physical space, such that all features in a depth plane are in focus with the eye in a particular accommodated state. Without being limited by theory, it is believed that the human eye typically can interpret a finite number of depth planes to provide depth perception. Consequently, a highly believable simulation of perceived depth may be achieved by providing, to the eye, different presentations of an image corresponding to each of these limited number of depth planes.
Waveguide Stack Assembly
[0054] FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a waveguide stack for outputting image information to a user. A display system 400 includes a stack of waveguides, or stacked waveguide assembly 405 that may be utilized to provide three-dimensional perception to the eye 410 or brain using a plurality of waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428. In some embodiments, the display system 400 may correspond to system 200 of FIG. 2, with FIG. 4 schematically showing some parts of that system 200 in greater detail. For example, in some embodiments, the waveguide assembly 405 may be integrated into the display 208 of FIG. 2.
[0055] With continued reference to FIG. 4, the waveguide assembly 405 may also include a plurality of features 430, 432, 434, 436 between the waveguides. In some embodiments, the features 430, 432, 434, 436 may be lenses. In some embodiments, the features 430, 432, 434, 436 may not be lenses. Rather, they may be spacers (e.g., cladding layers and/or structures for forming air gaps).
[0056] The waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 and/or the plurality of lenses 430, 432, 434, 436 may be configured to send image information to the eye with various levels of wavefront curvature or light ray divergence. Each waveguide level may be associated with a particular depth plane and may be configured to output image information corresponding to that depth plane. Image injection devices 440, 442, 444, 446, 448 may be utilized to inject image information into the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428, each of which may be configured to distribute incoming light across each respective waveguide, for output toward the eye 410. Light exits an output surface of the image injection devices 440, 442, 444, 446, 448 and is injected into a corresponding input edge of the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428. In some embodiments, a single beam of light (e.g., a collimated beam) may be injected into each waveguide to output an entire field of cloned collimated beams that are directed toward the eye 410 at particular angles (and amounts of divergence) corresponding to the depth plane associated with a particular waveguide.
[0057] In some embodiments, the image injection devices 440, 442, 444, 446, 442 are discrete displays that each produce image information for injection into a corresponding waveguide 420, 422, 424, 426, 428, respectively. In some other embodiments, the image injection devices 440, 442, 446, 446, 448 are the output ends of a single multiplexed display which may, for example, pipe image information via one or more optical conduits (such as fiber optic cables) to each of the image injection devices 440, 442, 444, 446, 448.
[0058] A controller 450 controls the operation of the stacked waveguide assembly 405 and the image injection devices 440, 442, 444, 446, 448. In some embodiments, the controller 450 includes programming (e.g., instructions in a non-transitory computer-readable medium) that regulates the timing and provision of image information to the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428. In some embodiments, the controller 450 may be a single integral device, or a distributed system connected by wired or wireless communication channels. The controller 450 may be part of the processing modules 224 or 228 (illustrated in FIG. 2) in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the controller may be in communication with an inward-facing imaging system 452 (e.g., a digital camera), an outward-facing imaging system 454 (e.g., a digital camera), and/or a user input device 466. The inward-facing imaging system 452 (e.g., a digital camera) can be used to capture images of the eye 410 to, for example, determine the size and/or orientation of the pupil of the eye 410. The outward-facing imaging system 454 can be used to image a portion of the world 456. The user can input commands to the controller 450 via the user input device 466 to interact with the display system 400.
[0059] The waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 may be configured to propagate light within each respective waveguide by total internal reflection (TIR). The waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 may each be planar or have another shape (e.g., curved), with major top and bottom surfaces and edges extending between those major top and bottom surfaces. In the illustrated configuration, the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 may each include light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 that are configured to extract light out of a waveguide by redirecting the light, propagating within each respective waveguide, out of the waveguide to output image information to the eye 410. Extracted light may also be referred to as outcoupled light, and light extracting optical elements may also be referred to as outcoupling optical elements. An extracted beam of light is outputted by the waveguide at locations at which the light propagating in the waveguide strikes a light redirecting element. The light extracting optical elements (460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may, for example, be reflective and/or diffractive optical features. While illustrated disposed at the bottom major surfaces of the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 for ease of description and drawing clarity, in some embodiments, the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may be disposed at the top and/or bottom major surfaces, and/or may be disposed directly in the volume of the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428. In some embodiments, the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may be formed in a layer of material that is attached to a transparent substrate to form the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428. In some other embodiments, the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 may be a monolithic piece of material and the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may be formed on a surface and/or in the interior of that piece of material.
[0060] With continued reference to FIG. 4, as discussed herein, each waveguide 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 is configured to output light to form an image corresponding to a particular depth plane. For example, the waveguide 420 nearest the eye may be configured to deliver collimated light, as injected into such waveguide 420, to the eye 410. The collimated light may be representative of the optical infinity focal plane. The next waveguide up 422 may be configured to send out collimated light which passes through the first lens 430 (e.g., a negative lens) before it can reach the eye 410. First lens 430 may be configured to create a slight convex wavefront curvature so that the eye/brain interprets light coming from that next waveguide up 422 as coming from a first focal plane closer inward toward the eye 410 from optical infinity. Similarly, the third up waveguide 424 passes its output light through both the first lens 430 and second lens 432 before reaching the eye 410. The combined optical power of the first and second lenses 430 and 432 may be configured to create another incremental amount of wavefront curvature so that the eye/brain interprets light coming from the third waveguide 424 as coming from a second focal plane that is even closer inward toward the person from optical infinity than was light from the next waveguide up 422.
[0061] The other waveguide layers (e.g., waveguides 426, 428) and lenses (e.g., lenses 434, 436) are similarly configured, with the highest waveguide 428 in the stack sending its output through all of the lenses between it and the eye for an aggregate focal power representative of the closest focal plane to the person. To compensate for the stack of lenses 430, 432, 434, 436 when viewing/interpreting light coming from the world 456 on the other side of the stacked waveguide assembly 405, a compensating lens layer 438 may be disposed at the top of the stack to compensate for the aggregate power of the lens stack 430, 432, 434, 436 below. Such a configuration provides as many perceived focal planes as there are available waveguide/lens pairings. Both the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 of the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 and the focusing aspects of the lenses 430, 432, 434, 436 may be static (e.g., not dynamic or electro-active). In some alternative embodiments, either or both may be dynamic using electro-active features.
[0062] With continued reference to FIG. 4, the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may be configured to both redirect light out of their respective waveguides and to output this light with the appropriate amount of divergence or collimation for a particular depth plane associated with the waveguide. As a result, waveguides having different associated depth planes may have different configurations of light extracting optical elements, which output light with a different amount of divergence depending on the associated depth plane. In some embodiments, as discussed herein, the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may be volumetric or surface features, which may be configured to output light at specific angles. For example, the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 may be volume holograms, surface holograms, and/or diffraction gratings. Light extracting optical elements, such as diffraction gratings, are described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2015/0178939, published Jun. 25, 2015, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In some embodiments, the features 430, 432, 434, 436 may not be lenses. Rather, they may simply be spacers (e.g., cladding layers and/or structures for forming air gaps).
[0063] In some embodiments, the light extracting optical elements 460, 462, 464, 466, 468 are diffractive features that form a diffraction pattern, or “diffractive optical element” (also referred to herein as a “DOE”). Preferably, the DOE’s have a relatively low diffraction efficiency so that only a portion of the light of the beam is deflected away toward the eye 410 with each intersection of the DOE, while the rest continues to move through a waveguide via total internal reflection. The light carrying the image information is thus divided into a number of related exit beams that exit the waveguide at a multiplicity of locations and the result is a fairly uniform pattern of exit emission toward the eye 410 for this particular collimated beam bouncing around within a waveguide.
[0064] In some embodiments, one or more DOEs may be switchable between “on” states in which they actively diffract, and “off” states in which they do not significantly diffract. For instance, a switchable DOE may comprise a layer of polymer dispersed liquid crystal, in which microdroplets comprise a diffraction pattern in a host medium, and the refractive index of the microdroplets can be switched to substantially match the refractive index of the host material (in which case the pattern does not appreciably diffract incident light) or the microdroplet can be switched to an index that does not match that of the host medium (in which case the pattern actively diffracts incident light).
[0065] In some embodiments, the number and distribution of depth planes and/or depth of field may be varied dynamically based on the pupil sizes and/or orientations of the eyes of the viewer. In some embodiments, an inward-facing imaging system 452 (e.g., a digital camera) may be used to capture images of the eye 410 to determine the size and/or orientation of the pupil of the eye 410. In some embodiments, the inward-facing imaging system 452 may be attached to the frame 212 (as illustrated in FIG. 2) and may be in electrical communication with the processing modules 224 and/or 228, which may process image information from the inward-facing imaging system 452) to determine, e.g., the pupil diameters and/or orientations of the eyes of the user 204.
[0066] In some embodiments, the inward-facing imaging system 452 (e.g., a digital camera) can observe the movements of the user, such as the eye movements and the facial movements. The inward-facing imaging system 452 may be used to capture images of the eye 410 to determine the size and/or orientation of the pupil of the eye 410. The inward-facing imaging system 452 can be used to obtain images for use in determining the direction the user is looking (e.g., eye pose) or for biometric identification of the user (e.g., via iris identification). The images obtained by the inward-facing imaging system 452 may be analyzed to determine the user’s eye pose and/or mood, which can be used by the display system 400 to decide which audio or visual content should be presented to the user. The display system 400 may also determine head pose (e.g., head position or head orientation) using sensors such as inertial measurement units (IMUs), accelerometers, gyroscopes, etc. The head’s pose may be used alone or in combination with eye pose to interact with stem tracks and/or present audio content.
[0067] In some embodiments, one camera may be utilized for each eye, to separately determine the pupil size and/or orientation of each eye, thereby allowing the presentation of image information to each eye to be dynamically tailored to that eye. In some embodiments, at least one camera may be utilized for each eye, to separately determine the pupil size and/or eye pose of each eye independently, thereby allowing the presentation of image information to each eye to be dynamically tailored to that eye. In some other embodiments, the pupil diameter and/or orientation of only a single eye 410 (e.g., using only a single camera per pair of eyes) is determined and assumed to be similar for both eyes of the viewer 204.
[0068] For example, depth of field may change inversely with a viewer’s pupil size. As a result, as the sizes of the pupils of the viewer’s eyes decrease, the depth of field increases such that one plane not discernible because the location of that plane is beyond the depth of focus of the eye may become discernible and appear more in focus with reduction of pupil size and commensurate increase in depth of field. Likewise, the number of spaced apart depth planes used to present different images to the viewer may be decreased with decreased pupil size. For example, a viewer may not be able to clearly perceive the details of both a first depth plane and a second depth plane at one pupil size without adjusting the accommodation of the eye away from one depth plane and to the other depth plane. These two depth planes may, however, be sufficiently in focus at the same time to the user at another pupil size without changing accommodation.
[0069] In some embodiments, the display system may vary the number of waveguides receiving image information based upon determinations of pupil size and/or orientation, or upon receiving electrical signals indicative of particular pupil sizes and/or orientations. For example, if the user’s eyes are unable to distinguish between two depth planes associated with two waveguides, then the controller 450 may be configured or programmed to cease providing image information to one of these waveguides. Advantageously, this may reduce the processing burden on the system, thereby increasing the responsiveness of the system. In embodiments in which the DOEs for a waveguide are switchable between on and off states, the DOEs may be switched to the off state when the waveguide does receive image information.
[0070] In some embodiments, it may be desirable to have an exit beam meet the condition of having a diameter that is less than the diameter of the eye of a viewer. However, meeting this condition may be challenging in view of the variability in size of the viewer’s pupils. In some embodiments, this condition is met over a wide range of pupil sizes by varying the size of the exit beam in response to determinations of the size of the viewer’s pupil. For example, as the pupil size decreases, the size of the exit beam may also decrease. In some embodiments, the exit beam size may be varied using a variable aperture.
[0071] The display system 400 can include an outward-facing imaging system 454 (e.g., a digital camera) that images a portion of the world 456. This portion of the world 456 may be referred to as the field of view (FOV) and the imaging system 454 is sometimes referred to as an FOV camera. The entire region available for viewing or imaging by a viewer 204 may be referred to as the field of regard (FOR). The FOR may include 4.pi. steradians of solid angle surrounding the display system 400. In some implementations of the display system 400, the FOR may include substantially all of the solid angle around a user 204 of the display system 400, because the user 204 can move their head and eyes to look at objects surrounding the user (in front, in back, above, below, or on the sides of the user). Images obtained from the outward-facing imaging system 454 can be used to track gestures made by the user (e.g., hand or finger gestures), detect objects in the world 456 in front of the user, and so forth.
[0072] The display system 400 can include a user input device 466 by which the user can input commands to the controller 450 to interact with the display system 400. For example, the user input device 466 can include a trackpad, a touchscreen, a joystick, a multiple degree-of-freedom (DOF) controller, a capacitive sensing device, a game controller, a keyboard, a mouse, a directional pad (D-pad), a wand, a haptic device, a totem (e.g., functioning as a virtual user input device), and so forth. In some cases, the user may use a finger (e.g., a thumb) to press or swipe on a touch-sensitive input device to provide input to the display system 400 (e.g., to provide user input to a user interface provided by the display system 400). The user input device 466 may be held by the user’s hand during the use of the display system 400. The user input device 466 can be in wired or wireless communication with the display system 400.
[0073] FIG. 5 shows an example of exit beams outputted by a waveguide. One waveguide is illustrated, but it will be appreciated that other waveguides in the waveguide assembly 405 may function similarly, where the waveguide assembly 405 includes multiple waveguides. Light 505 is injected into the waveguide 420 at the input edge 510 of the waveguide 420 and propagates within the waveguide 420 by TIR. At points where the light 505 impinges on the DOE 460, a portion of the light exits the waveguide as exit beams 515. The exit beams 515 are illustrated as substantially parallel but they may also be redirected to propagate to the eye 410 at an angle (e.g., forming divergent exit beams), depending on the depth plane associated with the waveguide 420. It will be appreciated that substantially parallel exit beams may be indicative of a waveguide with light extracting optical elements that outcouple light to form images that appear to be set on a depth plane at a large distance (e.g., optical infinity) from the eye 410. Other waveguides or other sets of light extracting optical elements may output an exit beam pattern that is more divergent, which would require the eye 410 to accommodate to a closer distance to bring it into focus on the retina and would be interpreted by the brain as light from a distance closer to the eye 410 than optical infinity.
[0074] FIG. 6 shows another example of the display system 400 including a waveguide apparatus, an optical coupler subsystem to optically couple light to or from the waveguide apparatus, and a control subsystem. The display system 400 can be used to generate a multi-focal volumetric, image, or light field. The display system 400 can include one or more primary planar waveguides 604 (only one is shown in FIG. 6) and one or more DOEs 608 associated with each of at least some of the primary waveguides 604. The planar waveguides 604 can be similar to the waveguides 420, 422, 424, 426, 428 discussed with reference to FIG. 4. The optical system may employ a distribution waveguide apparatus, to relay light along a first axis (vertical or Y-axis in view of FIG. 6), and expand the light’s effective exit pupil along the first axis (e.g., Y-axis). The distribution waveguide apparatus, may, for example include a distribution planar waveguide 612 and at least one DOE 616 (illustrated by double dash-dot line) associated with the distribution planar waveguide 612. The distribution planar waveguide 612 may be similar or identical in at least some respects to the primary planar waveguide 604, having a different orientation therefrom. Likewise, the at least one DOE 616 may be similar or identical in at least some respects to the DOE 608. For example, the distribution planar waveguide 612 and/or DOE 616 may be comprised of the same materials as the primary planar waveguide 604 and/or DOE 608, respectively. The optical system shown in FIG. 6 can be integrated into the wearable display system 200 shown in FIG. 2.
[0075] The relayed and exit-pupil expanded light is optically coupled from the distribution waveguide apparatus into the one or more primary planar waveguides 604. The primary planar waveguide 662 relays light along a second axis, preferably orthogonal to first axis, (e.g., horizontal or X-axis in view of FIG. 6). Notably, the second axis can be a non-orthogonal axis to the first axis. The primary planar waveguide 604 expands the light’s effective exit path along that second axis (e.g., X-axis). For example, the distribution planar waveguide 612 can relay and expand light along the vertical or Y-axis, and pass that light to the primary planar waveguide 604 which relays and expands light along the horizontal or X-axis.
[0076] The display system 400 may include one or more sources of colored light (e.g., red, green, and blue laser light) 620 which may be optically coupled into a proximal end of a single mode optical fiber 624. A distal end of the optical fiber 624 may be threaded or received through a hollow tube 628 of piezoelectric material. The distal end protrudes from the tube 628 as fixed-free flexible cantilever 632. The piezoelectric tube 628 can be associated with four quadrant electrodes (not illustrated). The electrodes may, for example, be plated on the outside, outer surface or outer periphery or diameter of the tube 628. A core electrode (not illustrated) is also located in a core, center, inner periphery or inner diameter of the tube 628.
[0077] Drive electronics 636, for example electrically coupled via wires 640, drive opposing pairs of electrodes to bend the piezoelectric tube 628 in two axes independently. The protruding distal tip of the optical fiber 624 has mechanical modes of resonance. The frequencies of resonance can depend upon a diameter, length, and material properties of the optical fiber 624. By vibrating the piezoelectric tube 628 near a first mode of mechanical resonance of the fiber cantilever 632, the fiber cantilever 632 is caused to vibrate, and can sweep through large deflections.
[0078] By stimulating resonant vibration in two axes, the tip of the fiber cantilever 632 is scanned biaxially in an area filling two dimensional (2-D) scan. By modulating an intensity of light source(s) 620 in synchrony with the scan of the fiber cantilever 632, light emerging from the fiber cantilever 632 forms an image. Descriptions of such a set up are provided in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2014/0003762, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.
[0079] A component 644 of an optical coupler subsystem collimates the light emerging from the scanning fiber cantilever 632. The collimated light is reflected by mirrored surface 648 into the narrow distribution planar waveguide 612 which contains the at least one diffractive optical element (DOE) 616. The collimated light propagates vertically (relative to the view of FIG. 6) along the distribution planar waveguide 612 by total internal reflection, and in doing so repeatedly intersects with the DOE 616. The DOE 616 preferably has a low diffraction efficiency. This causes a fraction (e.g., 10%) of the light to be diffracted toward an edge of the larger primary planar waveguide 604 at each point of intersection with the DOE 616, and a fraction of the light to continue on its original trajectory down the length of the distribution planar waveguide 612 via TIR.
[0080] At each point of intersection with the DOE 616, additional light is diffracted toward the entrance of the primary waveguide 612. By dividing the incoming light into multiple outcoupled sets, the exit pupil of the light is expanded vertically by the DOE 616 in the distribution planar waveguide 612. This vertically expanded light coupled out of distribution planar waveguide 612 enters the edge of the primary planar waveguide 604.
[0081] Light entering primary waveguide 604 propagates horizontally (relative to the view of FIG. 6) along the primary waveguide 604 via TIR. As the light intersects with DOE 608 at multiple points as it propagates horizontally along at least a portion of the length of the primary waveguide 604 via TIR. The DOE 608 may advantageously be designed or configured to have a phase profile that is a summation of a linear diffraction pattern and a radially symmetric diffractive pattern, to produce both deflection and focusing of the light. The DOE 608 may advantageously have a low diffraction efficiency (e.g., 10%), so that only a portion of the light of the beam is deflected toward the eye of the view with each intersection of the DOE 608 while the rest of the light continues to propagate through the waveguide 604 via TIR.
[0082] At each point of intersection between the propagating light and the DOE 608, a fraction of the light is diffracted toward the adjacent face of the primary waveguide 604 allowing the light to escape the TIR, and emerge from the face of the primary waveguide 604. In some embodiments, the radially symmetric diffraction pattern of the DOE 608 additionally imparts a focus level to the diffracted light, both shaping the light wavefront (e.g., imparting a curvature) of the individual beam as well as steering the beam at an angle that matches the designed focus level.
[0083] Accordingly, these different pathways can cause the light to be coupled out of the primary planar waveguide 604 by a multiplicity of DOEs 608 at different angles, focus levels, and/or yielding different fill patterns at the exit pupil. Different fill patterns at the exit pupil can be beneficially used to create a light field display with multiple depth planes. Each layer in the waveguide assembly or a set of layers (e.g., 3 layers) in the stack may be employed to generate a respective color (e.g., red, blue, green). Thus, for example, a first set of three adjacent layers may be employed to respectively produce red, blue and green light at a first focal depth. A second set of three adjacent layers may be employed to respectively produce red, blue and green light at a second focal depth. Multiple sets may be employed to generate a full 3D or 4D color image light field with various focal depths.
Other Components of AR Systems
[0084] In many implementations, the AR system may include other components in addition to the wearable display system 80 (or optical systems 100). The AR devices may, for example, include one or more haptic devices or components. The haptic device(s) or component(s) may be operable to provide a tactile sensation to a user. For example, the haptic device(s) or component(s) may provide a tactile sensation of pressure and/or texture when touching virtual content (e.g., virtual objects, virtual tools, other virtual constructs). The tactile sensation may replicate a feel of a physical object which a virtual object represents, or may replicate a feel of an imagined object or character (e.g., a dragon) which the virtual content represents. In some implementations, haptic devices or components may be worn by the user (e.g., a user wearable glove). In some implementations, haptic devices or components may be held by the user.
[0085] The AR system may, for example, include one or more physical objects which are manipulable by the user to allow input or interaction with the AR system. These physical objects are referred to herein as totems. Some totems may take the form of inanimate objects, for example a piece of metal or plastic, a wall, a surface of table. Alternatively, some totems may take the form of animate objects, for example a hand of the user. As described herein, the totems may not actually have any physical input structures (e.g., keys, triggers, joystick, trackball, rocker switch). Instead, the totem may simply provide a physical surface, and the AR system may render a user interface so as to appear to a user to be on one or more surfaces of the totem. For example, the AR system may render an image of a computer keyboard and trackpad to appear to reside on one or more surfaces of a totem. For instance, the AR system may render a virtual computer keyboard and virtual trackpad to appear on a surface of a thin rectangular plate of aluminum which serves as a totem. The rectangular plate does not itself have any physical keys or trackpad or sensors. However, the AR system may detect user manipulation or interaction or touches with the rectangular plate as selections or inputs made via the virtual keyboard and/or virtual trackpad.
[0086] Examples of haptic devices and totems usable with the AR devices, HMD, and display systems of the present disclosure are described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2015/0016777, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.
Examples of Performing Error Correction on Display Systems
[0087] As described above, a display system may comprise a stacked waveguide assembly, such as that illustrated in FIGS. 4-6, having multiple display layers of a substrate material with diffractive gratings to redirect light generating a digitized light field that impinges on the eye. In some embodiments, the waveguide assembly comprises one substrate layer per color per depth. For example, a two-depth plane RGB display can have a total of 6 waveguide layers. The display system can be an embodiment of the wearable display system 80.
[0088] In a stacked waveguide assembly, there are a range of potential phenomena that may introduce artifacts causing deteriorated image quality. These may include ghosting (multiple images), distortion, misalignment (between colors or depths), and color intensity variation across the field of view. In addition, certain types of artifacts that may occur in other types of conditions, e.g., when illuminating with a laser as opposed to an LED (e.g., speckle, banding, Newton fringes), or when the density of out-coupled beams is less than a certain amount (e.g., wavefront sparsity, which may be perceived as if looking through a screen-door or a picket fence).
[0089] Due to imperfections in the optics of a light field display, a perfect three-dimensional grid in a render engine can become distorted when displayed through the optics. In order to identify and correct distortions between expected images and actual displayed images, a calibration pattern, such as a checkerboard pattern, can be projected using the display system.
[0090] FIG. 7 illustrates example distortions that can occur when projecting a calibration pattern 702 by a display system. The calibration pattern 702 can be any type of pattern suitable for performing spatial or chromatic calibration (e.g., a checkerboard pattern comprising a plurality of checkerboard squares). The calibration pattern 702 can include any type of test or calibration pattern such as a geometric pattern or a random stochastic pattern. The projected calibration pattern 702 results in a generated light field image 704. The distortions present in the image 704 can include spatial distortions (e.g., when a visible pixel is not where it is expected to be within the field of view) as well as chromatic distortions (e.g., when a color value of a visible pixel is different from what is expected). For example, the checkerboard squares of the pattern 702 may be shifted from their expected positions in the image 704 (e.g., spatial errors). In addition, instead of the checkerboard squares appearing in black and white, some checkerboard squares in the image 704 may appear in other colors, such as purple (e.g., chromatic errors). Display errors can be measured using a light field metrology system, which can include a digital camera positioned to acquire image(s) of a calibration pattern projected by the display. In some embodiments, multiple images may be captured corresponding to a calibration image shifted to different locations, in order to acquire finer grained information on expected positions versus actual positions. The digital camera can be configured to focus at different focus depths, in order to determine at what depths different regions of a displayed image (e.g., features on a displayed calibration pattern) are in focus.
[0091] Capturing multiple images at different focus depths to determine depths of different regions of a displayed image in accordance with some embodiments is described in greater detail below in association with FIGS. 17-20. Different types of calibration patterns that may be used in various embodiments are described in greater detail below in association with FIGS. 22-24.
Spatial Errors
[0092] Spatial errors may include several different manifestations. For example, spatial misalignment includes translations or rotations of a display layer. Spatial errors may also involve non-linear spatial distortions varying over the field of view (FOV) of a depth plane of the display.
[0093] Spatial error can be a symptom of mechanical or optical defects within the display system. By interpreting the measured spatial errors, metrics that quantify the optomechanical quality of a system and that are suggestive of methods for improvement can be derived. For example, a spatial error representing depth plane rotation can suggest that the display is mechanically rotated with respect to a desired position. Per-color plane scaling may suggest that the lens system is not sufficiently achromatic.
[0094] To identify spatial errors, a light field metrology system comprising an image capture apparatus such as a digital camera can be used to capture one or more images projected by the display system (e.g., projections of a calibration pattern) and produce a vector field that represents deviations of the actual displayed image from the expected image. The vector field may be a three-dimensional vector field including in-plane deviations in the x-y plane of the display and out-of-plane deviations in the z-direction (depth), or a two-dimensional vector field including deviations in just the x-y plane. In some embodiments, a vector field may be generated for each depth plane or each color plane of the display system. In some embodiments, depth may be measured in diopters, representing the inverse of the focal length of the layer in meters)
[0095] FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a vector field that can be generated from one or more captured images that maps deviations between expected positions of points in a projected light field and their actual displayed positions. The points in the projected light field may correspond to features in a calibration image (e.g., centers and corners of calibration checkerboard squares). Each vector in the vector field represents a distortion between an expected position in the light field and its corresponding actual position. In this example, the distortion vector field is 2D. In the illustrated vector field, expected positions of a feature are marked using a first color and marker type (e.g., an “0” 802 for expected positions), while actual displayed positions of the feature are marked using a second color (e.g., an “X” 804 for detected positions). Each pair of corresponding expected positions and displayed positions is connected by a line 806, which may include an arrow indicating the direction of the correction needed to correct the detected displayed position to be the expected position.
[0096] Using the vector field, local or global distortion information (e.g., in-plane translation, aggregate scaling, aggregate rotation, mean pixel warp, or diopter error, described below) can be extracted. For example, a distortion graph may be generated from a determined vector field. The distortion graph can be used to analyze a distribution of pixel position error values (e.g., vector magnitude) over a generated vector field. The distortion graph may be a histogram showing the frequency of pixel position errors (e.g., plotting a pixel position error magnitude against frequency at which the error magnitude appears in the vector field). Other types of graphs may be used to analyze other attributes of a vector field (e.g., distortion direction).
[0097] Spatial errors can be broadly split up into in-plane and out-of-plane spatial errors. In-plane spatial errors refer to spatial errors along a particular depth plane (e.g., an xy-plane, in accordance with the coordinate system illustrated in FIG. 6) at a particular depth (measured on the z-axis). A vector field (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 8) can be used to derive one or more metrics for different categories of spatial errors. Each of these metrics may be defined on a per-layer basis (e.g., for each individual display layer corresponding to a particular combination of color and depth (e.g., Red-3 Diopter display layer, Green-1 Diopter display layer, etc.)) or a per-display basis (e.g., to quantify the overall fidelity of the display in a concise parameter).
In-Plane Spatial Errors
[0098] In some embodiments, in-plane spatial errors can be divided into a plurality of different components, each corresponding to a different type of error. These components can include translation error, rotational error, scaling error, or non-linear spatial error. Each of these error components can be corrected for individually or sequentially.
[0099]* In-Plane Translation Error*
[0100] FIG. 9A illustrates an example in-plane (xy) translation spatial error (also referred to as xy centration). An xy translation error refers to the x- and/or y-pixel shift of the center of a displayed image of a display layer from its expected position, and is intended to inform mechanical or display alignment. In FIG. 9A, an expected image position 900 (shown as a red rectangle in this example) is translated to a displayed image position 900a (shown as a green shape having non-straight edges). An xy translation error may be corrected by identifying a center position 902 of the displayed image 900a and a center position 904 of the expected image 900, and performing one or more shifts (along a determined translation vector 901) such that the displayed center position 902 is aligned with the expected center position 904 (through mechanical alignment of the display, software correction of the display images, or a combination of both). One or more metrics for the measured xy translation spatial error can include translation error, measured on a per layer basis, which measures a layer center versus an expected or reference position (e.g., an optical axis of the display) or maximum translation offset, measured per display, which indicates a maximum translation between any two display layers to quantify overall translation registration.
[0101]* Aggregate Rotation Error*
[0102] FIG. 9B illustrates an example aggregate rotation spatial error. Aggregate rotation refers to the overall rotation angle of the displayed image about its center relative to the expected position of the image. While spatial distortion may not always be fully describable by a simple affine rotation, an aggregate rotation measure can be used to provide the rotation angle by which the pixel position error (between displayed versus expected image positions) is minimized. Aggregate rotation metrics are intended to inform mechanical or display alignment. As illustrated in FIG. 9B, aggregate rotation may be corrected by rotating a displayed image 906 around a center point 908 by a designated rotational amount 907 to a position 910 corresponding to an expected position (through mechanical alignment of the display, through software correction of the displayed image, or both). Reported metrics can include rotation error, measured per layer, indicating a measured orientation versus the expected or reference orientation (e.g., relative to a horizontal axis of the display) and maximum rotation offset, measured per display, indicating a maximum rotation error between any two display layers to quantify overall rotational registration.
[0103]* Aggregate Scaling Error*
[0104] FIG. 9C illustrates an example of an aggregate scaling spatial error. Aggregate scaling indicates an overall scaling factor of a displayed image about its center relative to an expected image. While the spatial distortion may not be fully described by a simple affine scaling, an aggregate scaling measure may indicate a scaling factor by which the pixel position error is minimized. Aggregate scaling metrics are intended to inform optical design or display alignment. As illustrated in FIG. 9C, aggregate scaling spatial errors may be corrected by scaling a size of a displayed image 912 by a designated scaling amount 913 to match that of an expected image 914. Reported metrics for aggregate scaling can include scaling error, measured per layer, which measures image scaling versus an expected or reference scaling (e.g. with reference to physical target in a calibrated setup) and maximum scaling offset, measured per display, indicating a maximum scaling between any two display layers to quantify overall scale registration.
[0105] FIG. 9D illustrates another example of an aggregate scaling spatial error. The displayed image 916 appears smaller in comparison to an expected image 918. In order to correct the scaling error, the displayed image 916 is scaled up by a scaling amount 917 to match the size of the expected image 918.
[0106]* Pixel Warp Error*
[0107] FIG. 9E illustrates an example of remaining spatial errors after corrections of xy translation, rotation, and scaling have been performed. The remaining error (also referred to as pixel warp or spatial mapping) indicates an average residual Euclidean pixel position error, after xy translation, rotation, and scaling have been factored out of the overall spatial distortion profile (e.g., as illustrated in FIGS. 9A-9D), gives a measure of the non-linear or non-affine warping characteristic of the display system, and may be used to inform display design and quality control. Reported metrics for pixel warp may include mean pixel warp (MPW), measured per layer, indicating an average residual Euclidean pixel position error after xy translation, rotation and scaling have been factored out, with reference to a perfect grid, and maximum mean pixel warp (Max. MPW), measured per display, indicating a maximum of the MPWs among the layers of the display to quantify overall warping. In some embodiments, the remaining pixel warp can be corrected through spatial mapping performed using a processing module (e.g., module 224 or 228) to align the displayed image 920 with the expected image 922.
Out-of-Plane Spatial Errors
[0108] A digital light-field display system, such as those illustrated in FIGS. 4-6, is able to produce depth planes that appear to be at different depths (in the z-direction) from the viewer (see, e.g., FIG. 3). In some embodiments, the depth planes correspond to flat planes that appear to be placed at different distances from the viewer. As is common in optics, rather than referring to the distance of the depth plane from the display, an inverse distance measured in diopters (m.sup.-1) can be used to reference the different depth planes. For example, a display may have two depth planes positioned at depths of 3 diopters (1/3 m) and 1 diopter (1 m). Due to imperfections in the display system, the diopter profile across a depth plane may not be as expected. For example, the displayed image on a depth layer may have a diopter profile with an incorrect distance, or varying focus across the FOV of the display.
[0109] Out-of-plane spatial errors (also referred to as diopter errors) are a measure of diopter (depth) error of a depth plane, and are intended to inform errors in optical, mechanical and waveguide alignment or design. The reported metrics for diopter error may include diopter error, measured per layer, indicating an error amount between expected and measured depth of depth planes, and maximum diopter error, indicating a maximum depth error among the depth planes.
[0110] FIG. 10A illustrates an example of a plurality of depth planes, intended to be viewed at different depths. In the illustrated example, three different depth planes are shown, although the display system may contain more or fewer depth planes. In addition, each depth plane may correspond to multiple waveguide layers (e.g., RGB color layers).
[0111] FIGS. 10B-10D illustrate examples of types of out-of-plane spatial errors that may occur when viewing the projected depth planes shown in FIG. 10A. For example, a projected depth plane may be shifted to a different depth, such that it appears at a depth that is greater than or smaller than expected (FIG. 10B). A depth plane may be misaligned such it exhibits a bulk rotation from the expected depth (FIG. 10C). A depth plane may exhibit a non-uniform profile characteristic of grating imperfections (FIG. 10D). A depth plane may exhibit a combination of the errors illustrated in FIGS. 10B-10D.
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